Legal Identity

The official proof of legal identity in Mongolia is the citizen ID card of Mongolia, a mandatory electronic ID card issued to citizens aged 16 and over.^[1] The card contains personal information including the citizen’s full name, date of birth, photograph, and a unique identification number.^[2] The card, issued by the General Authority for State Registration, features a biometric chip that stores personal data and identity verification through fingerprint scanning and facial recognition.^[3] The citizen ID card is used as a proof of legal identity as well as to access public and private services including voting, banking, school enrollment, and healthcare.^[4]

First time applicants for the citizen ID must register in-person at a State Civil Registry Office as the process involves collection of biometric data. Renewal of the card must also take place in-person at ages 25 and 45.^[5] The documents required to apply for a citizen ID card include the Mongolian birth certificate, Mongolian passport, and a filled in application form.^[6]

The citizen ID card is available exclusively to Mongolian citizens while residency permits are compulsory for foreign nationals residing in Mongolia.^[7] The citizen ID card is not proof of citizenship: a passport or birth certificate are the primary documents certifying citizenship according to Article 5 of the Law of Mongolia on Citizenship (1995, as amended in 2000) (referred to hereafter as LMC).^[8]

Foreign nationals and stateless persons can obtain a Mongolian citizen ID card only after acquiring Mongolian citizenship through naturalization.^[9] Stateless persons and foreign nationals can apply for Mongolian citizenship through naturalization by meeting the criteria stipulated under Article 9 of the LMC.^[10] Applicants must be resident in Mongolia for at least five years, possess a legal income that is 10 times higher than the minimum wage, speak the Mongolian language, understand local customs, have no criminal record, maintain no ties with foreign powers and demonstrate no interference with the reputation or interests of Mongolia.^[11] The ‘Procedure for Establishing the Criteria for Foreign Citizens and Stateless Persons Who Apply for Citizenship in Mongolia’, published in 2003, outlines detailed processes and documentation needed for stateless persons and foreign nationals to apply for citizenship.^[12] This includes providing a notarized copy of the residence permit, bank statement, conducting an interview with the applicant, as well as obtaining statements from the police and the Central Intelligence Agency.^[13]

Foreign nationals residing in Mongolia for more than 90 days for work, study, or private visits must apply for a residency permit which is valid for five years Applications can be submitted in-person at the Immigration Agency of Mongolia or online.^[14] The F-register number, a unique 13-digit identification number, is issued to foreign nationals who hold residence permits.^[15] Stateless persons are afforded the same rights as Mongolian citizens to travel abroad according to Article 9(3) under the Law of Mongolia on the Legal Status of Foreign Citizens (2010, as amended in 2021) (referred to hereafter as LLSFN).^[16] However, it is unclear whether provisions in the LLSFN apply to stateless persons as most of the them predominantly relate to ‘foreign nationals’, defined as a person who has foreign citizenship thereby excluding stateless persons.^[17]

It is mandatory for all births to be registered within 15 days in central areas and 30 days in remote rural areas.^[18] Documents required for birth registration include a hospital-issued birth certificate, parents’ identification documents such as passports, citizen ID cards, or residence permits, marriage certificate of parents, and translations of foreign documents if applicable.^[19] Once a birth has been registered with the required documentation in-person at a civil registry office and the documents have been verified by the office, an official birth certificate is issued, serving as a legal proof of birth.^[20]

If a child is born in Mongolia and both parents are foreign nationals or stateless persons, a letter confirming the birth will be provided by the hospital.^[21] Children born to foreign national or stateless parents will be issued a birth certificate but it does not include a citizen registration number.^[22] Children born to stateless persons within Mongolia may apply for Mongolian citizenship upon reaching the age of 16 as stipulated under Article 7 of the Mongolia Law on Citizenship (1995, as amended in 2000).^[23] This provision leaves children stateless until they are 16 years old with no guarantee of receiving citizenship as they have to apply for citizenship.^[24]

Children born abroad to one or both Mongolian parents are eligible for Mongolian citizenship and a birth certificate, but the birth must be registered within 30 days at the nearest Mongolian embassy or consulate.^[25] If registration is not done within the time period, additional documentation is required to prove that the child has not acquired another country’s citizenship.^[26] For foundlings or children whose parents are unidentifiable, the child will be regarded as a Mongolian citizen under Section 7(4) of the Mongolia Law on Citizenship (1995, as amended in 2000).^[27] For children born out of wedlock, particularly when an unmarried father is to be named on the birth certificate, both parents must complete a declaration of paternity to confirm legal recognition of parentage.^[28]

Digital ID Overview

Mongolia launched its e-government services platform known as E-Mongolia, aimed to improve ease and access to public service services by streamlining government services into a single digital platform.^[29] The E-Mongolia platform, a government-led initiative, was developed and launched by the Minister and Chief of the Cabinet Secretariat and the Communications and Information Technology Authority.^[30] When it was first launched in October 2020, 181 government services were available through the E-Mongolia mobile app and website.^[31] To apply for E-Mongolia, users can apply by downloading the mobile app and entering their e-ID number and phone number.^[32] As of May 2024, the government launched the fourth version of E-Mongolia, offering 1,263 public services from 87 organizations and enrolled nearly seven million users.^[33] This digital platform includes:

access to personal documentation such as ID cards, passports, driver’s licenses, birth certificates, marriage certificates;
establishing business entities, managing company data and licenses;
access to government records such as land or property records as well as tax information;
access to social insurance, vaccine certificates, and health services;
access to online textbooks and schooling information.^[34]

Although enrolling in the E-Mongolia platform is voluntary, it is becoming the primary method for citizens to access government services due to its convenience and ease of access.^[35] The E-Mongolia platform resembles a functional ID as it acts as a platform to access a variety of public services while the e-ID acts as a foundational ID system providing proof of legal identity.

Since E-Mongolia is accessible to both citizens and foreign nationals who hold a residency permit, access to the digital platform is not a marker of citizenship. E-Mongolia is mainly as a platform to access key government services. Foreign nationals can register for the E-Mongolia app using their F-register, the ID number assigned through the residency permits, and a valid phone number, as of November 2023.^[36] There is no available information on whether refugees or stateless persons without a residency permit can access E-Mongolia, although in theory refugees or stateless persons possessing a residency permit should be able to access it. Without access to E-Mongolia, stateless persons are excluded from accessing the public services listed above, including legal identity documentation, business and banking services, government records, social insurance and health records.^[37]

The use of E-Mongolia accelerated during the Covid-19 lockdowns in 2020 to ensure access to public services such as access to ID cards or information about the Covid-19 infections and vaccinations.^[38]

Law

Domestic law and policy

Mongolia does not have a specific legal framework governing the E-Mongolia platform. It is shaped by these key legislations, the Law on Public Information Transparency (2021) (referred to hereafter as Public Information Transparency Law), Law on Personal Data Protection (2021) (referred to hereafter as Data Protection Law), Law on Electronic Signatures (2021) (referred to hereafter as Electronic Signatures Law), and Law on Cyber Security (2021) (referred to hereafter as Cyber Security Law).^[39] These legislations are part of a package of new or revised legislation enacted in December 2021 to accelerate the development of the country’s digital transformation initiatives.^[40]

The E-Mongolia platform is a key initiative under the government’s ‘Digital Nation Strategy (2022-2027)’ to advance digital transformation and technological innovation in Mongolia aimed at improving the quality of life for citizens, strengthen economic competitiveness, and modernize government functions through digital and technological solutions.^[41] The focus areas of the strategy include developing robust IT infrastructure, enhancing cybersecurity measures, and integrating emerging technologies such as AI, blockchain, and the Internet of Things for economic and social benefits.^[42]

The E-Mongolia Academy is a state-owned entity established in January 2022 to support the implementation of the e-government transition, conduct research on the digitalization of government services and operations, develop information technology products and services, and organize training in information technology.^[43] This agency is also tasked with ensuring customer satisfaction through effective management of complaints, requests, or feedback related to digital public services by managing the 11-11 Center, the government’s Citizen and Public Relations Center.^[44]

Since the focus of these relevant laws are on digitization, cybersecurity, and public information, and the digital nation strategy focus on developing digital infrastructure, there is no apparent linkage between the E-Mongolia platform and citizenship.

Data Protection

On 17 December 2021, the Parliament of Mongolia adopted the Data Protection Law which came into effect on 1 May 2022 and repealed the Law of Mongolia on Personal Secrets (1995) and the Law of Mongolia on Data Transparency and Right to Data (2011).^[45] The Data Protection Law appoints the National Human Rights Commission of Mongolia and the Ministry of Digital Development and Communications as its regulators.^[46]

The Data Protection Law covers matters related to personal privacy and the collection, processing, use, and security of personal data through technology and software.^[47] The law defines ‘personal data’ to include first and last name; date and place of birth; permanent address and location data; citizen registration number; properties; education and membership; and online identifiers’.^[48] It further defines ‘sensitive personal data’ to include ethnicity and race; religion and beliefs; health information, correspondences, genetic and biometric data; personal key of an electronic signature; criminal records; and data concerning sexual orientation and sexual relationships.^[49]

Other relevant legislation includes the Electronic Signatures Law, the Cyber Security Law and the Public Information Transparency Law, that were adopted alongside the Data Protection Law in December 2021.^[50] The Electronic Signatures Law establishes that digital signatures have the same legal effect as handwritten signatures and official seals, making them binding for contracts and electronic documents.^[51] The Cyber Security Law establishes the legal framework for cybersecurity governance, protection and response, by mandating risk assessments, audits. It also provides strict regulations on data handling.^[52] The Public Information Transparency Law ensures citizens’ right to search and receive public information, by requiring all government information be made accessible. It also provides the legal basis for government activities to be conducted electronically.^[53]

In 2021, a major cybersecurity incident involved the compromise of MonPass, one of Mongolia’s primary certificate authorities (CAs), when attackers breached MonPass’s infrastructure to distribute backdoored software to users in the region.^[54] Previous cybersecurity incidents in Mongolia and other Asian countries have been linked to a Chinese hacking company or to Chinese cyber-espionage groups.^[55]

International Commitments

Mongolia is a signatory to agreements related to data protection including the EU-Mongolia Partnership and Cooperation Agreement, which commits Mongolia to cooperate with the European Union (EU) to improve its level of data protection to the highest standard.^[56] This agreement, which came into force on 1 November 2017, establishes political dialogue to encourage convergence of positions on international issues and cooperate for stability, security, and respect for democracy and human rights.^[57] Besides developing trade and investment between the two countries, it also encourages cooperation in sectors of mutual interest such as financial services, taxation, media, science and technology, energy, transport, agriculture, and health.^[58]

Although Mongolia has ratified the major human rights treaties including the ICCPR, ICESCR, ICERD, CRC, and CEDAW, it has not ratified both the 1954 and 1961 Stateless Convention, as well as the 1951 Refugee Convention.^[59] In its 2022 concluding observations, the ICESCR Committee expressed concerns regarding the ongoing discrimination towards asylum-seekers, refugees, and stateless persons and noted the absence of a comprehensive anti-discrimination law against marginalized and disadvantaged groups.^[60] In its 2017 concluding observations, the CRC Committee recommended that Mongolia ensure a legal identity through birth registration for ‘Kazakh children, those who migrate within the territory of the State party and those who were born at home or without midwife support’, as well as take measures to ensure children who would otherwise be stateless be granted citizenship.^[61] In its 2016 concluding observations, the Committee against Torture raised concerns on the lack of consideration around the risk of torture and whether the ‘extradition of foreign citizens or stateless persons who have committed crimes or have been sentenced to punishments in the territory of a foreign country violates the principle of non-refoulement.^[62] The CERD Committee in its 2019 concluding observations also raised concerns that that asylum seekers, refugees and stateless persons, in particular those who are not registered, may have difficulties accessing public services, such as health care, social security and education.^[63]

In 2013, the Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights recommended that Mongolia ‘resolve the issue of statelessness, in cooperation with the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), through improved registration of persons who previously held Mongolian nationality and expedite procedures for (re-)acquisition of Mongolian nationality’.^[64] In 2025, the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Privacy applauded the government for enacting the Data Protection Law and advancing digitalization.^[65] She further encouraged the government to prioritize increasing citizens’ awareness of the right to privacy and to close the digital divide in its population, particulalry amongst vulnerable groups.^[66]

On 26 June 2025, Mongolia adopted the Ministerial Declaration on a Decade of Action for Inclusive and Resilient Civil Registration and Vital Statistics in Asia and the Pacific, pledging commitments to universal access, gender equality, digital inclusion, and resilient CRVS systems.^[67] The Declaration commits to building secure digital public infrastructure that enables equitable access to services and entitlements, while ensuring that ‘vulnerable and digitally marginalized groups’ are not excluded.^[68]

Designed to Include?

The Impact of Digital ID and Legal Identity on Citizenship and Nationality Rights

Mongolia’s digital identity platform, E-Mongolia, has not directly reduced statelessness, as eligibility for its foundational legal identity document, the citizen ID card, remains tied to citizenship.^[69] The citizen ID card is mandatory for Mongolian citizens and serves as the primary credential for accessing public and private services, while stateless persons may only obtain it through naturalization.^[70] The government’s digital government platform, E-Mongolia, functions instead as a service access portal rather than proof of nationality, allowing both citizens and foreign nationals with residency permits to log in using their unique registration numbers.^[71] As a result, digital ID is not itself linked to the granting of citizenship and does not cause statelessness through denial or revocation. However, because access to the platform requires either a citizen ID number or a residency-based F-registration number, stateless persons without formal residency documentation are effectively excluded, which may reinforce existing legal identity barriers.

Stateless persons who cannot register for the E-Mongolia platform must rely solely on in-person procedures as the platform has become the primary channel for accessing more than a thousand public services, including retrieval of civil documentation such as birth and marriage certificates, applications for identification documents and passports, access to health insurance and vaccination records, social insurance information, education services, property and tax records, and business registration.^[72]

While Mongolia’s legal and policy framework governing digital transformation emphasizes cybersecurity, data protection, and service efficiency, it does not explicitly address inclusion of stateless persons or others lacking legal documentation.^[73] Strengthening inclusivity would therefore require embedding principles of non-discrimination within digital ID policy, by clarifying eligibility criteria for vulnerable or marginalized groups, and ensuring that civil registration, particularly birth registration for children at risk of statelessness, is connected to digital ID.

The government has adopted several practical measures to bridge the digital divide for vulnerable and geographically isolated populations. These include the deployment of mobile public service units and ‘KhurDan’ service points that bring digital government services directly to rural and remote communities, as well as initiatives to improve digital literacy and provide on-site assistance to elderly persons and individuals with limited technological skills.^[74] In addition, the nationwide 11-11 Citizen and Public Relations Center provides a hotline and complaints mechanism through which individuals can seek support, submit grievances, or obtain guidance regarding public and digital services.^[75] These outreach measures improve accessibility in practice for elderly persons and those living in rural, remote areas, although they are not specifically targeted at stateless persons, refugees, or asylum seekers.

International human rights bodies have repeatedly highlighted that stateless, refugees, and marginalized populations face difficulties accessing essential services such as health care, education, and social protection, which may become more challenging as more services are digitalized.^[76] While Mongolia’s digital ID system has improved convenience and administrative efficiency for many residents, access to these benefits are reliant on possessing legal identity documents, leaving stateless persons at risk of continued exclusion unless targeted legal and policy reforms are adopted.

References

1.^

‘CIVIL REGISTRATION SERVICES – Embassy of Mongolia in the United Kingdom’ <https://en.embassyofmongolia.co.uk/consular-service/civil-registration-services> accessed 4 February 2026.

2.^

‘Mongolia’s Citizen ID Card: A Digital Identity Analysis - The Global Digital Identity Index’ <https://digitalidentityindex.com/mongolias-citizen-id-card-a-digital-identity-analysis/> accessed 4 February 2026.

3.^

ibid.

4.^

ibid.

5.^

‘CIVIL REGISTRATION SERVICES – Embassy of Mongolia in the United Kingdom’ (n 1).

6.^

ibid.

7.^

‘Mongolia: Knowledge Base Profile’ (GOV.UK) <https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mongolia-knowledge-base-profile/mongolia-knowledge-base-profile> accessed 4 February 2026.

8.^

‘LAW OF MONGOLIA ON CITIZENSHIP’ (Эрх зүйн мэдээллийн нэгдсэн систем) <https://legalinfo.mn/> accessed 4 February 2026.

9.^

‘Joint Submission to the Human Rights Council at the 36th Session of the Universal Periodic Review (Third Cycle, April-May 2019) - Mongolia’ (Child Education Institute of Mongolia & Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion 2019) <https://files.institutesi.org/UPR36_Mongolia.pdf> accessed 10 February 2026.

10.^

ibid.

11.^

‘LAW OF MONGOLIA ON CITIZENSHIP’ (n 8).

12.^

‘PROCEDURE FOR ESTABLISHING THE CRITERIA FOR FOREIGN CITIZENS AND STATELESS PERSONS WHO APPLY FOR CITIZENSHIP IN MONGOLIA’ (The National Legal Institute Mongolia) <https://legalinfo.mn/> accessed 10 February 2026.

13.^

ibid.

14.^

‘Residence Permit Types and Issuance’ (Immigration Agency of Mongolia) <https://immigration.gov.mn/en/residence-permit-copy-2/orshin-suuh-zvshrlijn-hugacaa-sungah-hselt-gargahalban-bolon-huv/> accessed 4 February 2026; ‘Foreigners Can Obtain Residence Permit Inquiries Online’ (Immigration Agency of Mongolia) <https://immigration.gov.mn/en/articles/273/#:~:text=These%20services%20include%20applying%20for%20a%20residence,digital%20service%20on%20the%20website%20at%20https://immigration.gov.mn/mn/residence%2Dpermit/.> accessed 4 February 2026.

15.^

‘Foreigners Can Obtain Residence Permit Inquiries Online’ (n 14).

16.^

Law of Mongolia on the Legal Status of Foreign Citizens.

17.^

‘Joint Submission to the Human Rights Council at the 36th Session of the Universal Periodic Review (Third Cycle, April-May 2019) - Mongolia’ (n 9).

18.^

{Citation}

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‘Mongolia: Knowledge Base Profile’ (n 7).

20.^

‘Mongolia Birth - Cosmos Legal’ (4 December 2025) <https://www.cosmoslegal.com.tr/mongolia-birth/> accessed 4 February 2026.

21.^

‘Mongolia: Knowledge Base Profile’ (n 7).

22.^

ibid.

23.^

‘LAW OF MONGOLIA ON CITIZENSHIP’ (n 8).

24.^

‘Joint Submission to the Human Rights Council at the 36th Session of the Universal Periodic Review (Third Cycle, April-May 2019) - Mongolia’ (n 9).

25.^

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26.^

ibid.

27.^

‘LAW OF MONGOLIA ON CITIZENSHIP’ (n 8).

28.^

‘Mongolia Birth - Cosmos Legal’ (n 19); ‘Mongolia: Knowledge Base Profile’ (n 7).

29.^

‘“E-Mongolia” Electronic Platform Launched to Provide 181 Government Services’ (MONTSAME News Agency) <https://www.montsame.mn/en/read/238364> accessed 10 February 2026.

30.^

ibid.

31.^

ibid.

32.^

‘Becoming an “E-Mongolia” User Is Quick and Easy’ (Government of Mongolia) <https://www.gov.mn/en/news/all/1be8e377-1499-4a3c-8fea-3be38645237d> accessed 10 February 2026.

33.^

‘E-Mongolia System Accessed Seven Million Times by Users Outside the Country’ (MONTSAME News Agency) <https://montsame.mn/en/read/359776> accessed 10 February 2026.

34.^

‘eMongolia Academy’ <https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Regional-Presence/AsiaPacific/Documents/Events/2025/LLDC%202025/PPTs/Special%20Session%20-%20eMongolia.pdf> accessed 10 February 2026; Б.Анхтуяа, ‘Elementary schools to have electronic books - News.MN’ (News.MN - The source of news, 21 December 2023) <https://news.mn/en/800283/> accessed 10 February 2026.

35.^

Bolor-Erdene Battsengel, ‘How To Do Digital Government: Experiences From E-Mongolia’ (Urbanet, 8 February 2022) <https://www.urbanet.info/digital-governance-mongolia/> accessed 10 February 2026.

36.^

B Amina, ‘Foreigners to Access E-Mongolia Service’ (3 November 2023) <https://www.pressreader.com/mongolia/the-ub-post/20231103/281535115691512> accessed 10 February 2026.

37.^

‘eMongolia Academy’ (n 32).

38.^

‘How to Build a “Digital Nation”: Perspectives from Mongolia | Blavatnik School of Government’ (8 February 2021) <https://www.bsg.ox.ac.uk/blog/how-build-digital-nation-perspectives-mongolia> accessed 10 February 2026.

39.^

40.^

ibid.

41.^

‘Mongilia’s Digital Nation Guidelines (2022-2027) | Digital Watch Observatory’ <https://dig.watch/resource/mongilias-digital-nation-guidelines-2022-2027> accessed 11 February 2026.

42.^

‘Mongolia: E-Government and Digital Transformation’ (Asian Development Bank 2022) Knowledge and Support Technical Assistance (KSTA) 55211–001.

43.^

‘eMongolia Academy’ (n 32).

44.^

‘11-11 Center - About Us’ (Government of Mongolia) <https://www.11-11.mn/index?p=about> accessed 11 February 2026; ‘E-Mongolia Academy - About Us’ (Government of Mongolia) <https://www.gov.mn/en/organization/e-mongolia> accessed 11 February 2026.

45.^

‘Mongolia | Jurisdictions’ (DataGuidance) <https://www.dataguidance.com/jurisdictions/mongolia> accessed 11 February 2026.

46.^

ibid.

47.^

‘Data Protection Laws in Mongolia - Data Protection Laws of the World’ <https://www.dlapiperdataprotection.com/?t=law&c=MN> accessed 11 February 2026.

48.^

ibid.

49.^

ibid.

50.^

‘Mongolia | Jurisdictions’ (n 45).

51.^

Law of Mongolia on Electronic Signatures 2021.

52.^

‘Law of Mongolia on Cyber Security’ (Legal Institute of Mongolia) <https://legalinfo.mn/en/edtl/16531350476261> accessed 11 February 2026.

53.^

THE LAW OF MONGOLIA ON INFORMATION TRANSPARENCY AND RIGHT TO INFORMATION 2021.

54.^

Antonia Din, ‘Threat Actors Distribute Backdoor After Compromising the Mongolian CA MonPass’ (Heimdal Security Blog, 5 July 2021) <https://heimdalsecurity.com/blog/cybercriminals-compromise-mongolian-certificate-authority-monpass-to-distribute-malware/> accessed 12 February 2026.

55.^

‘Mongolian Certificate Authority Hacked Eight Times, Compromised with Malware’ <https://therecord.media/mongolian-certificate-authority-hacked-eight-times-compromised-with-malware> accessed 12 February 2026.

56.^

‘Mongolia | Jurisdictions’ (n 45).

57.^

‘Partnership Agreement between the European Union and Mongolia | EUR-Lex’ (1 November 2017) <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/summary/partnership-agreement-between-the-european-union-and-mongolia.html> accessed 12 February 2026.

58.^

ibid.

59.^

‘UN Treaty Body Database for Mongolia’ <https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx> accessed 26 December 2025.

60.^

‘Concluding Observations on the Fifth Periodic Report of Mongolia’ (UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2022) <https://uhri.ohchr.org/en/document/bd9ee47b-73a8-409b-8c6d-ec144e7ab6a2> accessed 12 February 2026.

61.^

‘Concluding Observations on the 5th Periodic Report of Mongolia ’: <https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1311385?ln=en&v=pdf> accessed 12 February 2026.

62.^

UN. Committee against Torture (58th sess. : 2016 : Geneva) (ed), Concluding observations on the 2nd periodic report of Mongolia: Committee against Torture (UN 5) <https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/857906> accessed 12 February 2026.

63.^

‘CERD/C/MNG/CO/23-24: Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Concluding Observations on the Combined Twenty-Third and Twenty-Fourth Periodic Reports of Mongolia - Advance Unedited Version’ (OHCHR) <https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/concluding-observations/cerdcmngco23-24-committee-elimination-racial-discrimination> accessed 12 February 2026.

64.^

Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona and UN. Human Rights Council. Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights (eds), Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights, Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona: addendum (UN 30) <https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/755529> accessed 12 February 2026.

65.^

‘Mongolia: Prioritise Increasing Citizen Awareness of Right to Privacy, Says Expert’ (OHCHR) <https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/04/mongolia-prioritise-increasing-citizen-awareness-right-privacy-says-expert> accessed 12 February 2026.

66.^

ibid.

67.^

‘Ministerial Declaration on a Decade of Action for Inclusive and Resilient Civil Registration and Vital Statistics in Asia and the Pacific’ (Third Ministerial Conference on Civil Registration and Vital Statistics in Asia and the Pacific 2025) <https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/d8files/event-documents/2500197E_ESCAP_MCCRVS_2025_6_Add1_Ministerial_Declaration.pdf> accessed 17 December 2025.

68.^

ibid.

69.^

‘CIVIL REGISTRATION SERVICES – Embassy of Mongolia in the United Kingdom’ (n 1).

70.^

Nationality for All and others, ‘Joint Submission to the Human Rights Council Universal Periodic Review, 46th Session, Fourth Cycle, April-May 2024 - Cambodia’ <https://nationalityforall.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Cambodia-UPR_Statelessness_Final.pdf>; ‘Mongolia’s Citizen ID Card: A Digital Identity Analysis - The Global Digital Identity Index’ (n 2).

71.^

Amina (n 35).

72.^

‘eMongolia Academy’ (n 33).

73.^

‘Data Protection Laws in Mongolia - Data Protection Laws of the World’ (n 47).

74.^

‘Digital Initiative Makes Life Easier — For Those With Access’ (Global Press Journal, 14 March 2022) <https://globalpressjournal.com/asia/mongolia/digital-government-services-make-life-easier-access/> accessed 12 February 2026; ‘Unsdg | Bridging the Digital Divide in Mongolia’ <https://unsdg.un.org/latest/stories/bridging-digital-divide-mongolia> accessed 12 February 2026.

75.^

‘11-11 Center - About Us’ (n 44).

76.^

See Statelessness Overview