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Malaysia

Last updated : March 26, 2026

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Digital ID Overview

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Malaysia introduced a digital identity system known as MyDigital ID in March 2024.[14] It is managed and developed by MIMOS Berhad and MyDigital ID Sdn. Bhd. as a secure digital authentication tool for online transactions.[15] Its primary purpose is to facilitate online transactions and digital identity verification.[16]

Public consultations were held from July to August 2020 to introduce the concept of the National Digital ID (NDID) Framework.[17] The Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission gathered feedback on the potential uses, and recommendations from relevant stakeholders. The public consultation was launched through the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission, to gather people’s views on the NDID Framework and its uses and benefits.[18]

Malaysia’s Digital Economy Blueprint and associated NDID materials similarly frame MyDigital ID as a key enabler of trusted digital interactions across government and private sectors.[19] However, at this stage, actual integrations are limited to specific government systems. MyDigital ID currently operates as a single sign-on (SSO) or authentication layer for different government online services.[20] The MyDigital ID application has been integrated with several government platforms, including HRMIS Mobile (which manages government employee information), MySejahtera (health and wellness application), MyJPJ (service portal for motor vehicles and drivers’ licenses) and the MyGov portal (a platform for various government services and information).[21] There are plans to further expand the use of MyDigital ID as an SSO for services provided by other government and private sectors.[22] The government plans to integrate 95% of federal government services with MyDigitalID by 2030.[23]

Presently, some services require MyDigital ID as mandatory, which could extend to other services in the future.[24] However, there are alternative methods to log in for other services like MySejahtera, and MyGov.[25] My Digital ID registration is currently voluntary, and the government encourages citizens to register and utilize the system to enhance cybersecurity and streamline access to government applications.[26]

The MyDigital ID does not substitute physical identification documents such as MyKad.[27] However, registration requires a MyKad card, limiting access to Malaysian citizens.[28] With digitalization of civil registration in Malaysia, there remain large populations without MyKad, particularly among marginalized communities.[29] These groups are structurally unable to enroll in MyDigital ID and may face additional barriers as more services move toward MyDigital ID-based authentication.[30]

Law

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Domestic law and policy

The National Registration Act (1959) and its regulations provide the foundation for registering individuals and issuing identity cards.[31] The Electronic Government Activities Act (2007) promotes e-government including confidentiality and security of electronic records.[32] The Digital Signature Act (1997) governs digital transactions and contracts.[33] To safeguard data privacy and security, MyDigital ID must adhere to the Cybersecurity Act (2024), and Official Secret Act (1972).[34] The Cybersecurity Act (2024) addresses the management of cybersecurity threats in Malaysia, and the Official Secrets Act (1972) safeguards sensitive government information, including personal data, to protect national security and public interest.[35]

The MyDigital ID Helpdesk provides an avenue for individuals who experience problems with digital identity–based access to services to file complaints through the general feedback system.[36] Additionally, the complaint mechanisms of agencies that have integrated their platforms with MyDigital ID, such as ministerial portals or the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission’s online consumer redress portal for telecommunications-related issues and data protection complaints to the Personal Data Protection Commissioner.[37] However, current publicly available information does not indicate the existence of a specialized, statutory dispute-resolution body or appeal process specifically for MyDigital ID registration refusals, account suspension, or authentication errors.

Data Protection

The Personal Data Protection Act (2010) (referred to hereafter as PDPA) regulates the processing of personal data in the private sector, requiring that personal data is processed fairly, kept accurate and up to date, and protected by appropriate security measures.[38] The PDPA has been substantially amended in 2024 to introduce new obligations such as mandatory data protection officers for certain data users, 72-hour breach notification, data portability, and enhanced rules for cross-border transfers.[39] However, the PDPA applies only to ‘commercial transactions’ and Section 3(1) expressly excludes the Federal and State Governments from its scope, which means that core government-run systems, including the national digital ID infrastructure, generally fall outside the PDPA’s direct scope.[40]

As a result of the government exemption in the law, the PDPA does not directly govern the design or operation of the MyDigital ID system.[41] Nevertheless, under the PDPA framework, private-sector controllers and processors that handle personal data in connection with digital ID–enabled services must still ensure that data is processed for specific purposes, is accurate and up to date, and is protected through appropriate technical and organizational measures, including access controls, secure storage, and safeguards for data.[42] The 2024 amendments also require such entities to designate data protection officers, implement formal breach-response processes with 72-hour notification to regulators, and conduct transfer impact assessments when sending biometric or other sensitive data abroad, thereby indirectly influencing the broader digital ID ecosystem.[43]

To address governance of public-sector data, Malaysia has introduced the Data Sharing Act (2025) (DSA), which applies to public sector agencies and regulates how data is shared between them.[44] Section 12 of the DSA provides that a public sector agency may only request data from another agency for specified purposes and that such a request is subject to an evaluation process before sharing can occur, thereby creating a formal gatekeeping mechanism for inter-agency exchange.[45] Once data is shared, the DSA imposes obligations on both the requesting and receiving agencies, including duties relating to data security, record-keeping, reporting particulars of data sharing, and preventing unauthorized onward sharing, which in principle should constrain how identity-related data can circulate within government.[46] These requirements appear consistent with public statements that MyDigital ID encrypts all data while in transit (while it is being transmitted between private networks or through the internet) and processes user data only temporarily during authentication, aligning operational design with statutory duties to ensure secure handling and controlled sharing of public-sector information.[47] Taken together, PDPA obligations on private actors and DSA obligations on public agencies create a hybrid governance landscape for digital ID–related data, even though a comprehensive, unified public-sector data protection regime remains absent.

According to official MyDigital ID documentation and statements from the Malaysian government, the MyDigital ID system does not automatically store biometric data such as fingerprints or facial recognition templates on its own servers.[48] Instead, the system functions as an authentication layer that verifies a user’s identity for government services by matching biometric data and MyKad information against pre-existing records held by the National Registration Department (NRD), without retaining this biometric or personal data in the MyDigital ID infrastructure after the transaction.[49]

However, it should be noted that the government has experienced major data security failures in the past. In December 2022, a data breach compromised the personal information of nearly 13 million citizens.[50] Government-linked databases have experienced repeated leaks, creating widespread public skepticism about the security of centralized digital identity infrastructure.[51] Human rights organizations and UN bodies have also documented broader patterns of arbitrary detention, abusive conditions, and deportations affecting undocumented persons in Malaysia, including refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and migrant workers with irregular status.[52] For instance, the creation of a separate government-run Refugee Registration Document (DPP) system that collects extensive biometric data for “monitoring” purposes is outside the PDPA framework.[53]

International Commitments

Malaysia is not a signatory to any specific international treaty or framework dedicated solely to digital IDs. The ASEAN Framework on Personal Data Protection is a non-binding regional instrument that aims to harmonize data protection standards across Southeast Asia.[54] Malaysia participates in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation’s Cross-Border Privacy Rules (APEC CBPR) System.[55] The APEC CBPR is a certification mechanism, not a treaty, that verifies compliance with data protection standards for cross-border data transfers.[56] It is engaged in the ASEAN Digital Economy Framework Agreement (DEFA), which covers digital identity alongside data protection and cybersecurity.[57]

Malaysia has ratified CEDAW (1995 with Article 9(2) reservation), CRC (1995 with Articles 2 and 7 reservations), and CRPD (2010 with Articles 15 and 18 reservations).[58] However, Malaysia has not ratified the Statelessness Conventions, Refugee Convention, ICCPR, ICESCR, or ICERD.[59] The 2024 CEDAW Committee highlighted risks of statelessness arising from discriminatory nationality laws, including provisions affecting children born out of wedlock to Malaysian fathers. It also highlighted the restrictions on Malaysian women’s ability to pass down citizenship in certain circumstances.[60] The Universal Periodic Review 2024 urged Malaysia to resolve the issue of statelessness create systems that recognize refugee document.[61]

The country has also pledged in 2025 to the Ministerial Declaration on a Decade of Action for Inclusive and Resilient Civil Registration and Vital Statistics in Asia and the Pacific where countries committed to ensure that every birth is registered by 2030 and to close registration gaps among marginalized populations.[62] The Declaration highlights the barriers faced by stateless persons in accessing civil registration services and pledges to ‘develop and implement measures to avoid the potential exclusion of digitally marginalized or vulnerable populations from statistical data and facilitate their access to services and entitlements’.[63]

Designed to Include?

The Impact of Digital ID and Legal Identity on Citizenship and Nationality Rights

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Digital ID has neither contributed to nor reduced statelessness in Malaysia. The grant of digital ID is directly associated with proof of citizenship and cannot be accessed by stateless persons. Even where stateless individuals have temporary identity documents such as MyKAS, these do not qualify for MyDigital ID enrollment.[64] Registration requires scanning the MyKad, creating a barrier for stateless persons who lack this foundational documentation required for enrollment.[65] The government’s target of 95% public service integration with MyDigital ID by 2030 raises concerns. As essential services migrate to digital-first platforms with access requiring MyDigital ID, stateless persons face compounding barriers.[66]

Education access for stateless children remains heavily constrained, with many turned away from public schools despite the 2019 Zero Reject Policy permitting stateless children to attend primary school.[67] Even if not rejected, individuals are required to pay additional levies if admitted to school. Ultimately, however, they are unable to sit for national examinations without an identity card number.[68] In some cases, stateless children or young adults may hold MyKAS, but schools and examination boards treat MyKAS as a non-citizen documentation, meaning fees, quotas and exam access barriers largely mirror those faced by completely undocumented stateless persons.[69] Health services are similarly stratified, with stateless persons charged two to three times citizen rates in public facilities. This led many individuals to face heightened exclusion during crises such as COVID-19.[70] Furthermore, the lack of legal identity forces many into informal, low-paid and exploitative work.[71]

Under Malaysian immigration law and practice, undocumented individuals are commonly categorized as ‘illegal migrants’.[72] This classification applies broadly to refugees, asylum seekers, undocumented migrant workers, and stateless persons.[73] As a result, individuals lacking recognized identity documentation may face arrest, immigration detention, and deportation, sometimes for prolonged periods and under difficult conditions.[74] The absence of legal identity restricts access to services, exposes individuals to enforcement measures and creates continued insecurity.

Malaysian courts have, however, produced several important precedents: the Federal Court’s CYM decision in 2021 confirmed that an abandoned child (foundling) is a citizen by operation of law under the Constitution.[75] In a 2024 High Court ruling, it was held that stateless persons can legally register marriages without an identity card.[76] Despite the precedent, the 2024 constitutional amendments, which converted foundling citizenship from ‘operation of law’ to ‘by registration’, threaten to legislatively overturn this judicial protection.[77] Administrative measures such as issuing MyKAS temporary resident cards to some stateless individuals provide only a precarious, renewable status with no guaranteed pathway to citizenship or to full access to digital ID–linked services. The government’s measures initiated towards inclusion remain geographically limited and do not embed accessibility features or procedural adjustments for persons with disabilities, older persons, people living in rural and remote areas or indigenous communities who are at high risk of being excluded from the MyDigital ID framework.[78]

It is therefore recommended that Malaysia establish a dedicated statelessness determination procedure in domestic law. Access to essential digital services should be separated from strict citizenship requirements. Legal aid must be guaranteed in nationality and documentation matters. Independent oversight mechanisms should be created to monitor and prevent exclusion. Temporary documentation, such as MyKAS, should ensure pathways to permanent residence or citizenship as well as access to MyDigital ID and services tied to it. Without parallel reforms to nationality laws and access to civil registration, the expansion of digital identity systems risks reinforcing existing documentation hierarchies rather than resolving them.

References
1.^
National Registration Act 1959.
2.^
Constitution of Malaysia; ‘Constitution of Malaysia 1957 - Second Schedule’ <https://www.commonlii.org/my/legis/const/1957/17.html> accessed 3 March 2026.
3.^
‘Personal Identification - Identification Card’ <https://www.malaysia.gov.my/en/categories/personal-identification/identification-card> accessed 23 February 2026.
4.^
Danish National ID Centre, ‘Malaysia: Malaysian ID Cards and Citizenship’ (2023) <https://fln.dk/media/yungmum5/mala92.pdf>; ‘Personal Identification - Identification Card’ (n 3).
5.^
Danish National ID Centre (n 4)
6.^
ibid
7.^
ibid
8.^
‘Certification of Identity – Malaysian Immigration Department’ <https://www.imi.gov.my/index.php/en/main-services/certification-of-identity/> accessed 3 March 2026.
9.^
‘Portal JPN - Normal Registration Of Birth (Peninsular)’ <https://www.jpn.gov.my/en/core-business/birth/peninsular/pen-kelahiran-biasa-sm-eng> accessed 3 March 2026.
10.^
‘Personal Identification - Identification Card’ (n 3).
11.^
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, ‘DFAT Country Information Report Malaysia’ (2024) <https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/country-information-report-malaysia.pdf>; Rodziana Mohamed Razali, Tamara Joan Duraisingam and Nessa Ni Xuan Lee, ‘Digitalisation of Birth Registration System in Malaysia: Boon or Bane for the Hard-to-Reach and Marginalised?’ (2022) 6 Journal of Migration and Health 100137 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmh.2022.100137>.
12.^
MahWengKwai & Associates, ‘Citizenship’ (13 December 2018) <https://mahwengkwai.com/citizenship/> accessed 3 March 2026; DHRRA Malaysia, ‘Report: Statelessness in Malaysia’ <https://dhrramalaysia.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/STATELESSNESS-IN-MALAYSIA-REPORT-05042022_compressed.pdf>.
13.^
HM Passport Office UK, ‘Malaysia: Knowledge Base Profile’ (22 October 2025) <https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/malaysia-knowledge-base-profile/malaysia-knowledge-base-profile> accessed 3 March 2026; DHRRA Malaysia (n 12); Human Rights Commission of Malaysia, ‘Human Rights and Statelessness in Peninsular Malaysia’ (2023) <https://suhakam.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/SUHAKAM_Statelessness.pdf>.
14.^
‘Malaysian Government Rolls out the MyDigital ID - Home - Embassy of Malaysia, Helsinki’ <https://www.kln.gov.my/web/fin_helsinki/home/-/asset_publisher/tRzWjMt4hg2c/blog/malaysian-government-rolls-out-the-mydigital-id-?inheritRedirect=false&utm> accessed 10 March 2026; Salbiah Idris, ‘Assessing and Optimising MyDigital ID’ [2026] Khazanah Research Institute Publications <https://www.krinstitute.org/publications/assessing-and-optimising-mydigital-id-3> accessed 10 March 2026.
15.^
Annette Rowena, ‘Malaysia’s MyDigital ID Aims to Onboard 15 Million Users by End-2025’ (Fintech News Malaysia, 10 October 2025) <https://fintechnews.my/54520/digital-transformation/mydigital-id-malaysia-2025-target/> accessed 10 March 2026.
16.^
Annette Rowena, ‘Malaysia’s MyDigital ID Aims to Onboard 15 Million Users by End-2025’ (Fintech News Malaysia, 10 October 2025) <https://fintechnews.my/54520/digital-transformation/mydigital-id-malaysia-2025-target/> accessed 10 March 2026.
17.^
Annette Rowena, ‘Malaysia’s MyDigital ID Aims to Onboard 15 Million Users by End-2025’ (Fintech News Malaysia, 10 October 2025) <https://fintechnews.my/54520/digital-transformation/mydigital-id-malaysia-2025-target/> accessed 10 March 2026.
18.^
BERNAMA, ‘MCMC Seeks Public Feedback on National Digital Identity’ (BERNAMA, 26 July 2020) <https://bernama.com/en/news.php?id=1864424> accessed 10 March 2026.
19.^
Economic Planning Unit, Prime MInister’s Department, ‘Malaysia Digital Economy Blueprint’ <https://ekonomi.gov.my/sites/default/files/2021-02/malaysia-digital-economy-blueprint.pdf>; Frost & Sulivan and NEC, ‘Malaysian National Digital Identity Program’ <https://my.nec.com/en_MY/sme/article/20230001/Malaysian-National-Digital-Identity-NDID-Program.pdf>.
20.^
Idris (n 14).
21.^
‘MyDigital ID Malaysia’ (n 16).
22.^
Lu-Hai Liang, ‘Malaysia Targets 17 Million MyDigital IDs by End-2026 | Biometric Update’ (16 February 2026) <https://www.biometricupdate.com/202602/malaysia-targets-17-million-mydigital-ids-by-end-2026> accessed 10 March 2026.
23.^
‘Malaysia Aims for 95% Public Service Integration With MyDigital ID By 2030’ <https://shuftipro.com/news/malaysia-aims-for-95-public-service-integration-with-mydigital-id-by-2030/> accessed 10 March 2026.
24.^
Bernama, ‘MyDigital ID Mandatory for Malaysians Using MyNIISe from Jan 15’ (NST Online, 6 January 2026) <https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2026/01/1351835/mydigital-id-mandatory-malaysians-using-myniise-jan-15> accessed 3 March 2026.
25.^
Lu-Hai Liang, ‘Malaysia Mandates MyDigital ID for Malaysians Traveling Abroad | Biometric Update’ (14 January 2026) <https://www.biometricupdate.com/202601/malaysia-mandates-mydigital-id-for-malaysians-traveling-abroad> accessed 10 March 2026.
26.^
‘MyDigital ID Malaysia’ (n 16).
27.^
ibid
28.^
ibid
29.^
DHRRA Malaysia (n 12).
30.^
Idris (n 14).
31.^

National Registration Act.

32.^

Electronic Government Activities Act 2007.

33.^

Digital Signature Act 1997

34.^

Cyber Security Act 2024; Official Secrets Act 1972

35.^

Cyber Security Act; Official Secrets Act.

36.^

‘MyDigital ID Malaysia - Get In Touch’ (MyDigital ID) <https://www.digital-id.my/en/support> accessed 10 March 2026.

37.^

‘Department of Personal Data Protection (PDP), Malaysia’ (22 July 2024) <https://www.pdp.gov.my/ppdpv1/> accessed 10 March 2026; Consumer Forum Malaysia, ‘Lodging Complaints via the MCMC Redress Portal - FAQs’ <https://cfm.my/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Frequently-Asked-Questions-CCMD.pdf>.

38.^

Personal Data Protection Act 2010.

39.^

ibid

40.^

ibid

41.^

ibid

42.^

Yuet Ming Tham Huang Shu Min Ho, Margaret, ‘Important Changes to Malaysia’s Data Protection Laws’ (Data Matters Privacy Blog, 7 August 2024) <https://datamatters.sidley.com/2024/08/07/important-changes-to-malaysias-data-protection-laws/> accessed 10 March 2026; ‘Malaysia: Personal Data Protection (Amendment) Act 2024 to Come into Force’ <https://insightplus.bakermckenzie.com/bm/data-technology/malaysia-personal-data-protection-amendment-act-2024-to-come-into-force> accessed 10 March 2026.

43.^

Huang (n 42).

44.^

Data Sharing Act 2025.

45.^

ibid

46.^

ibid

47.^

‘MyDigital ID Has a Secure and Trusted Layer for Verification, Says Deputy CEO’ <https://govinsider.asia/intl-en/article/mydigital-id-has-secure-and-trusted-layer-for-verification-says-deputy-ceo> accessed 10 March 2026.

48.^

BERNAMA, ‘Mydigital Id Does Not Store Biometric Data Or Use Chips, Implants - Mimos’ (BERNAMA, 12 December 2023) <https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=2253489> accessed 10 March 2026.

49.^

ibid

50.^

aiman, ‘MyDigital ID: What Does It Mean For Malaysians & Digitalisation Efforts in Malaysia?’ (Grayscale, 4 March 2024) <https://grayscale.my/mydigital-id-what-does-it-mean-for-malaysians-digitalisation-efforts-in-malaysia/> accessed 10 March 2026.

51.^

‘Hacker Claims Massive Data Theft from Ministries, Government Agencies’ (MalaysiaNow, 4 August 2025) <https://www.malaysianow.com/news/2025/08/04/hacker-claims-massive-data-theft-from-ministries-government-agencies> accessed 11 March 2026; BERNAMA, ‘Malaysia Lost Over RM1.22 Bln To Cybercrime From Jan-Oct Last Year - IGP’ (BERNAMA, 26 August 2025) <https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=2460696> accessed 11 March 2026; Angelin Yeoh, ‘MyCert: Malaysia Data Breaches up 29% in Q1 2025’ (The Star, 11 June 2025) <https://www.thestar.com.my/tech/tech-news/2025/06/11/mycert-malaysia-data-breaches-up-29-in-q1-2025> accessed 11 March 2026.

52.^

Asylum Access Malaysia, ‘Independent Shadow Report to the Committee on the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against All Women’; ‘Human Rights in Malaysia’ (Amnesty International) <https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-east-asia-and-the-pacific/malaysia/report-malaysia/> accessed 10 March 2026; Human Rights Watch, ‘Malaysia: Events of 2024’ World Report 2025 (2025) <https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/malaysia> accessed 10 March 2026; Shayna Bauchner, ‘“We Can’t See the Sun”’ [2024] Human Rights Watch <https://www.hrw.org/report/2024/03/05/we-cant-see-sun/malaysias-arbitrary-detention-migrants-and-refugees> accessed 10 March 2026.

53.^

Admin, ‘Refugee Registration System Being Tested With Jan 1 Launch Targeted, Dewan Rakyat Told | Dr. Shamsul Anuar Nasarah’ (2 December 2025) <https://www.shamsulnasarah.com/refugee-registration-system-being-tested-with-jan-1-launch-targeted-dewan-rakyat-told/> accessed 10 March 2026.

54.^

ASEAN TELMIN, ‘Framework on Personal Data Protection’ (2016) <https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/2016-Frmwk-PDP.pdf>.

55.^

‘APEC Cross-Border Privacy Enforcement Arrangement (CPEA)’ (APEC) <https://www.apec.org/groups/committee-on-trade-and-investment/digital-economy-steering-group/cross-border-privacy-enforcement-arrangement> accessed 14 January 2026.

56.^

ibid

57.^

‘Why ASEAN’s New Digital Economy Framework Agreement Is a Game-Changer’ (World Economic Forum, 26 May 2025) <https://www.weforum.org/stories/2025/05/asean-digital-economy-framework-agreement-a-gamechanger/> accessed 10 March 2026.

58.^

OHCHR, ‘UN Treaty Body Database’ <https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx?CountryID=20&Lang=EN> accessed 20 November 2025.

59.^

ibid

60.^

mala‘Experts of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Commend Malaysia on Legislation to Address Gender-Based Violence, Ask about Female Genital Mutilation and Citizenship’ (OHCHR) <https://www.ohchr.org/en/meeting-summaries/2024/05/examen-de-la-malaisie-devant-le-cedaw-tout-en-saluant-des-progres> accessed 10 March 2026.

61.^

‘OHCHR | Universal Periodic Review - Malaysia’ (OHCHR) <https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/upr/my-index> accessed 10 March 2026.

62.^

‘Asia-Pacific Nations Reaffirm Commitment to Legal Identity for All at Third Ministerial Conference on Civil Registration and Vital Statistics | Get Every One in the Picture’ <https://crvs.unescap.org/news/asia-pacific-nations-reaffirm-commitment-legal-identity-all-third-ministerial-conference-civil> accessed 7 November 2025.

63.^

UNESCAP, ‘Ministerial Declaration on a Decade of Action for Inclusive and Resilient Civil Registration and Vital Statistics in Asia and the Pacific’ (2025) ESCAP/MCCRVS/2-25/6/Add.1 <https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/d8files/event-documents/2500197E_ESCAP_MCCRVS_2025_6_Add1_Ministerial_Declaration.pdf?_gl=1*vdnplp*_ga*NTMxNDc5Mjc4LjE3NjIzMjk2NDg.*_ga_SB1ZX36Y86*czE3NjIzMjk2NDckbzEkZzEkdDE3NjIzMzA1MDgkajI3JGwwJGgw>.

64.^

‘MyDigital ID Malaysia’ (n 16).

65.^

ibid

66.^

‘Malaysia Aims for 95% Public Service Integration With MyDigital ID By 2030’ (n 23); Bernama (n 24).

67.^

Tharani Loganathan and others, ‘Barriers and Facilitators to Education Access for Marginalised Non-Citizen Children in Malaysia: A Qualitative Study’ (2023) 18 PLOS ONE e0286793 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286793>.

68.^

ibid

69.^

‘Invisible Lives: The Stateless Crisis in Malaysia’ <https://www.nst.com.my/lifestyle/sunday-vibes/2024/11/1138821/invisible-lives-stateless-crisis-malaysia> accessed 16 March 2026.

70.^

Mei Yee How and Shu Hui Ng, ‘Swimming against the Currents: Our Experience Providing Primary Healthcare Services for the Stateless Community in Semporna’ (2024) 19 Malaysian Family Physician : the Official Journal of the Academy of Family Physicians of Malaysia 21 <https://doi.org/10.51866/mol.571>.

71.^

‘Non-Existent Humans: How Stateless Persons Are Forced to Work Informally’ (Harvard International Review, 15 January 2021) <https://hir.harvard.edu/non-existent-humans/> accessed 10 March 2026.

72.^

Bauchner (n 52).

73.^

ibid

74.^

ibid

75.^

‘Apex Court Declares Stateless Child a Citizen in Rebuke to Home Ministry’ (MalaysiaNow, 19 November 2021) <https://www.malaysianow.com/news/2021/11/19/apex-court-declares-stateless-child-a-citizen-in-rebuke-to-home-ministry> accessed 10 March 2026.

76.^

‘Landmark Ruling: Court Declares Three Generations in Perak Family Malaysians, Affirms Stateless Persons’ Right to Marry | Malay Mail’ <https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2025/11/26/landmark-ruling-court-declares-three-generations-in-perak-family-malaysians-affirms-stateless-persons-right-to-marry/199711> accessed 10 March 2026.

77.^

‘All You Need to Know about: The Constitutional Amendment to Malaysia’s Citizenship Laws | Malay Mail’ <https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/10/17/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-constitutional-amendment-to-malaysias-citizenship-laws/153975> accessed 10 March 2026.

78.^

‘Malaysia | Get Every One in the Picture’ <https://crvs.unescap.org/country/malaysia> accessed 10 March 2026.

See Statelessness Overview
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