Legal Identity

In the Philippines, legal identity is established through civil registration and enrollment in the Philippines Identification System (PhilSys).^[1] Civil registration is governed by Act No. 3753, An Act To Establish A Civil Register (1930).^[2] This civil register records the civil status of persons, including births, deaths, marriages, legitimations, adoptions and other acts affecting civil status.^[3] All births should be registered with the Local Civil Registry Office (LCRO) at the place where the birth occurred, within 30 days of the birth.^[4] A physician, midwife, or either parent must file a declaration certifying key details such as the child’s name, date and place of birth, sex, and the parents’ names and citizenship The LCRO creates a birth record and a Certificate of Live Birth is endorsed by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) which then issues a PSA Birth Certificate.^[6] PSA birth certificates are the foundational document for accessing a wide range of rights and services, such as school enrollment, social security registration, passport issuance and other government IDs.^[7] For those births that are not registered on time, there is a process for delayed or late registration that requires affidavits and additional corroborating documents.^[8] A late registration birth certificate has the same legal effect as a timely registration for purposes of establishing legal identity.^[9]

The Philippine Identification System (PhilSys) provides every Filipino citizen and qualifying ‘resident alien’ with a unique 12-digit identification number, PhilSys Number (PSN), and a corresponding Philippine Identification Document (PhilID).^[10] Once registered, the individual’s PSN and authenticated PhilSys record are accepted by all government agencies and private entities as sufficient proof of identity for transactions, regardless of whether the person presents a physical PhilID card.^[11] Laws such and the Republic Act No. 11055 (referred to hereafter as the Republic Act) and An Act Establishing the Philippine Identification System (2018) (referred to hereafter as the Philippine Identification System Act) defines a ‘resident alien’ as ‘an individual who is not a citizen of the Philippines but has established residence in the Philippines for an aggregate period of more than 180 days’.^[12] Information available does not confirm whether this extends to stateless persons, refugees or irregular migrants in the country.

Philippine law maintains a clear distinction between proof of identity and proof of citizenship(; or ,) and proof of identity under PhilSys does not automatically equate to proof of citizenship.^[13] Citizenship is governed primarily by Article IV of the 1987 Constitution, which follows a jus sanguinis model under which those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines are themselves citizens.^[14] Additional provisions cover those who were citizens at the time of the Constitution’s adoption. These include certain persons born before 17 January 1973, and those naturalized in accordance with law.^[15]The PSA birth certificate is usually the primary document used to establish both identity and prima facie evidence of citizenship as it records the parents’ names and citizenship at the time of birth.^[16] However, it does not itself indicate citizenship status.^[17]

Digital ID Overview

The ePhilID was introduced in 2022 as the printed digital version of the national ID, generated from the PhilSys database and containing a QR code that can be verified against the registry.^[18] Philippines’ national ID system, the Philippine Identification System (PhilSys), was established in 2018 by Republic Act (RA) No. 11055 (2018) as a ‘single national identification system’ for all Filipino citizens and ‘resident aliens’ to streamline public service delivery and support a digital economy.^[19] The ePhilID can be accessed via online channels and the eGovPH Super App.^[20]

The official PhilSys website explicitly presents it as a foundational digital ID designed to support ‘presenceless, paperless, and cashless’ transactions and to serve as the core legal identity credential integrated across government and private sector systems.^[21] Section 13 of the Republic Act No. 11055 authorizes the PhilID or PSN to be used for a wide range of public and private purposes, including access to social welfare benefits, health services, education, employment, tax dealings, passports, driver’s licenses, and banking and financial services. This indicates that it performs the role of a functional ID along with being is conceived as a foundational ID.^[22]

PhilSys authentication is being integrated into civil registration services, social protection programs. Banks and e-money issuers are using PhilSys-based authentication to simplify customer due diligence and promote financial inclusion.^[23] While Philippine law does not currently make PhilID the exclusive ID for any specific service, there are regulatory mandates for its integration into major platforms.^[24] This means that PhilSys is becoming indispensable in order to access to many digital government and financial services.^[25]Available government and media reports indicate that PhilSys credentials, particularly the Digital National ID through eGovPH, are increasingly treated as the primary or default form of ID for online onboarding and transactions, even though other IDs may still be accepted in some cases.^[26]

Citizens receive their initial PhilID free of charge and with lifetime validity.^[27] Foreign residents must register using a foreign passport and Alien Certificate of Registration (ACR/i-Card), pay standard fee and periodically renew their PhilID.^[28] Information available does not confirm whether this service extends to stateless persons, refugees or irregular migrants in the country.

The design and rollout of PhilSys have been led primarily by government actors, notably the PSA and the multi-agency PhilSys Policy and Coordination Council (PSPCC), with technology support from the Department of Information and Communications Technology (DICT), the BSP, open-source and financial sector partners.^[29] Available documentation describes PhilSys as a government-driven initiative with private partners mainly involved in providing technology platforms and financial-sector integration, rather than as a co-designed scheme with civil society or independent equality bodies.^[30]

Law

Domestic law and policy

The Philippines does have a dedicated legal framework for its national digital ID system. Republic Act, the Philippine Identification System Act, establishes the Philippine Identification System (PhilSys), creates the PhilSys Number (PSN), the Philippine Identification Card (PhilID), and the PhilSys Registry. It designates the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) as the main implementing body alongside the PhilSys Policy and Coordination Council (PSPCC).^[31] The Revised Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of RA 11055 (2021) further specify registration procedures, authentication modes, governance arrangements for the PSPCC, and data-protection and security duties, including appointment of a PhilSys Data Protection Officer and detailed penal provisions for misuse of PhilSys data or credentials.^[32] Executive Order No. 162 (2022) complements this framework by requiring all government agencies and private entities to accept the PhilID, PSN and PSN derivatives as sufficient proof of identity and age in their transactions, while leaving other government-issued IDs valid, and explicitly linking PhilSys to goals of improved service delivery, financial inclusion and reduced red tape.^[33]

The Philippines does not legally define ‘digital identity’ as a concept in any domestic statute, but the PhilSys law and IRR together describe the functional components of a digital identity system. The Republic Act defines PhilSys as the government’s central identification platform for all citizens and resident aliens and provides that a person’s record in PhilSys, and the PSN ‘in print, electronic or any other form, subject to authentication,’ shall be accepted as sufficient proof of identity in public- and private-sector transactions.^[34] The IRR further defines the PSN, PSN derivatives (for example the PhilSys Card Number), relying parties and trusted service providers, and lays out online and offline authentication processes that use combinations of demographic data, biometric data and cryptographically protected QR codes.^[35]

There is no single, PhilSys-specific complaint and redress system in statute; instead, people affected by misuse or mishandling of PhilSys data or credentials must rely on general legal and regulatory mechanisms. The Republic Act and its IRR contain criminal and administrative penalties for conduct such as refusing to accept PhilSys credentials without just cause, falsifying or fraudulently using PhilID or PSN, and unlawfully processing or disclosing PhilSys data. However, it does not establish a dedicated PhilSys complaints office, internal appeal routes within the PSA, or fixed timelines for resolving individual grievances.^[36] Operational issues like delayed or undelivered PhilIDs are generally handled through PSA helpdesks and online tracking or enquiry channels, with more serious disputes or alleged misconduct taken to the courts, the Ombudsman or broader government complaint platforms.^[37]

Data Protection

The Philippines’ data protection framework is built upon Republic Act No. 10173, the Data Privacy Act (2012) (referred to hereafter as DPA), which applies to all processing of personal data by natural or juridical persons in both the government and private sectors.^[38] The DPA is administered by the National Privacy Commission (NPC), an independent body mandated to implement the law, monitor compliance, receive complaints, conduct investigations, and issue enforcement orders including cease-and-desist orders. ^[39] Individuals whose PhilSys-related personal data are misused or exposed can file complaints with the NPC under the Data Privacy Act, using procedures set out in NPC issuances; the NPC can investigate, mediate, order correction or deletion of data, and impose administrative fines, including under amendments that expanded its enforcement powers.^[40]

The DPA does not define ‘biometric data’ anywhere in its text.^[41] Biometric data is captured indirectly under the DPA’s definition of ‘sensitive personal information’ in Section 3(l), which includes information about an individual’s health, education, genetic or sexual life, as well as any data specifically established by an executive order or act of Congress to be kept classified.^[42] The DPA’s broad definition of ‘personal information’, any information from which an individual’s identity is apparent or can be reasonably and directly ascertained, would also independently cover biometric data.^[43]

Section 22 of the DPA requires government agencies to secure sensitive personal information ‘with the use of the most appropriate standard recognized by the information and communications technology industry, and as recommended by the Commission’.^[44] The NPC has demonstrated rigorous enforcement of biometric data protections, as seen in its October 2025 cease-and-desist order against Tools for Humanity (Worldcoin) for unauthorized iris biometric collection.^[45] The Commission ruled that biometric data is ‘non-negotiable’ as a ‘unique and permanent identifier,’ and emphasized that consent compromised by financial compensation ‘ceases to be a genuine expression of choice’.^[46]

Section 23(b)(3) of the Data Privacy Act explicitly requires that ‘any technology used to store, transport or access sensitive personal information for purposes of off-site access…shall be secured by the use of the most secure encryption standard recognized by the Commission’.^[47] This applies when government employees access sensitive personal information off government property, limited to 1,000 records at a time with agency head approval.^[48] Section 17 of the PhilSys Act establishes a prohibition on the disclosure of PhilSys data to third parties, expressly including law enforcement agencies, national security agencies, and units of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. except where the registered person has given prior specific consent, or where a competent court orders disclosure upon establishing a substantial risk to public health or safety, with the registered person notified within 72 hours.^[49]

Civil society organizations have raised substantial concerns about function creep – the expansion of data use beyond originally declared purposes.^[50] The Foundation for Media Alternatives (FMA) documented that the PhilSys Act’s provision allowing disclosure when ‘compelling interest of public health or safety so requires’ creates ambiguity about who determines such interests and what safeguards prevent mission creep.^[51]The 2016 COMELEC data breach, which exposed personal information of 55 million registered voters including biometric fingerprint data, demonstrated the catastrophic consequences of inadequate data protection in government systems.^[52]

International Commitments

The Philippines is the first and only country in Southeast Asia to have ratified both Statelessness Conventions: the 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons and the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness.^[53] The Philippines is the Co-Chair of the Advisory Committee of the Global Alliance to End Statelessness, and is a solution seeker state.^[54] The Philippines introduced the National Action Plan to End Statelessness by 2024, launched in November 2017 as a seven-point framework aligned with UNHCR’s Global Action Plan and #IBelong campaign, with commitments to resolve existing cases of statelessness, ensure that no child is born stateless, improve birth registration, accede to statelessness conventions, and strengthen data on stateless populations.^[55] The Philippines operates a dedicated statelessness status determination procedure under Department of Justice Circular No. 58 (2012), administered by the DOJ Refugees and Stateless Persons Protection Unit.^[56]

The Philippines has ratified all core human rights treaties, including the ICCPR, ICESCR, CEDAW, CAT, CRC, CRPD, and CERD.^[57] The Philippines is not a party to any binding international treaty that specifically establishes obligations in relation to digital identity systems.

As a signatory, the country is obliged to ensure birth registration (ICCPR Article 24(2); and CRC Article 7), non-discrimination (ICCPR Article 2, 26; ICESCR Article 26; and CRC Article 2), and access to essential services like health (ICESCR Article 12), education (ICESCR Article 13), and social security (ICESCR Article 9).^[58] Furthermore, in its General Comment No. 25, the CRC Committee states that digital systems should be created such that they enable all children to safely access essential digital public services and educational services without discrimination.^[59]

The country has also pledged in 2025 to the Ministerial Declaration on a Decade of Action for Inclusive and Resilient Civil Registration and Vital Statistics in Asia and the Pacific where countries committed to ensure that every birth is registered by 2030 and to close registration gaps among marginalized populations.^[60] The Declaration highlights the barriers faced by stateless persons in accessing civil registration services and pledges to ‘develop and implement measures to avoid the potential exclusion of digitally marginalized or vulnerable populations from statistical data and facilitate their access to services and entitlements’.^[61]

Additionally, as a member state, Philippines is committed to the ASEAN Framework on Personal Data Protection and Framework on Digital Data Governance, which sets out non-binding principles encouraging member states to adopt national data protection laws.^[62] Philippines also participates in the APEC Privacy Framework, although it is not part of the Cross-Border Privacy Rules certification system.^[63] The framework aims at promoting electronic commerce throughout the Asia Pacific region, and highlights the value of privacy to individuals and to the information society.^[64]

Designed to Include?

The Impact of Digital ID and Legal Identity on Citizenship and Nationality Rights

The National Digital ID has neither contributed to nor reduced statelessness in the Philippines. The Philippine Identification System limits registration to citizens and ‘resident aliens’ of the Republic of the Philippines.^[65] There is no publicly available evidence that indicates that stateless persons can access this documentation. As the ePhilID is progressively integrated in government services, stateless persons face compounding and accelerating barriers as essential services migrate to digital-first platforms requiring PhilID verification.

Education access for stateless children is heavily constrained because the Department of Education requires a birth certificate as a basic documentary requirement for enrollment, creating an upstream barrier that prevents children without civil registration from entering the system that leads to PhilSys registration.^[66] In the Philippines, an estimated 3.7 million individuals lacked birth certificates as of 2020, with over a third being children aged 14 and below, disproportionately from indigenous and conflict-affected communities Without a birth certificate, such children cannot obtain a PhilID and face persistent exclusion from government programs and opportunities requiring proof of identity.^[67] Health services linked to the National Health Insurance Program (PhilHealth) similarly require identification for membership enrollment and benefit claims. While PhilHealth signed an inter-agency agreement with the DOJ and UNHCR in 2018 to enroll formally recognized Persons of Concern in the Sponsored Program, undocumented stateless persons who have not undergone formal determination proceedings remain unable to access this pathway.^[68] Furthermore, the lack of legal identity forces stateless persons into informal, low-paid, and exploitative work, as they are effectively barred from the formal employment sector that requires valid identification for SSS, PhilHealth, and HDMF membership contributions mandated by law.^[69]

Under Philippine immigration law, the Bureau of Immigration classifies individuals lacking valid immigration documentation as undocumented aliens, creating a risk of arrest, detention, and deportation for stateless persons unable to prove lawful status.^[70]

Philippine courts have produced important precedents relevant to statelessness and identity rights. In Poe-Llamanzares v. COMELEC (2016), the Supreme Court ruled that foundlings are presumed natural-born Filipino citizens, holding that concluding otherwise ‘creates an inferior class of citizens who are made to suffer that inferiority through no fault of their own,’ thereby preventing foundling children from falling into statelessness.^[71] In February 2022, the Supreme Court promulgated A.M. No. 21-07-22-SC, the Rule on Facilitated Naturalization of Refugees and Stateless Persons, which reduces residency requirements, permits online publication of petitions, and provides that inability to submit documentary requirements shall not be a ground for denial where the totality of evidence is sufficient.^[72] The government has also undertaken targeted measures including mobile birth registration missions in BARMM and Maguindanao in collaboration with UNHCR and UNICEF, with over 600 unregistered children receiving birth certificates in March 2023 alone.^[73] However, these measures operate parallel to PhilSys rather than integrated with it.

It is therefore recommended that the Philippines amend legislation to explicitly recognize stateless persons as an eligibility category, independent of visa status. This would align PhilSys with the country’s obligations under the 1954 and 1961 Conventions. Access to essential services, including healthcare, education, social protection, and banking, should be formally decoupled from strict PhilID requirements. Government agencies should be prohibited from denying services to persons whose exclusion from PhilSys results from statutory barriers. Without parallel reforms to registration law and civil identity infrastructure, the expansion of digital identity systems risks reinforcing existing documentation hierarchies rather than resolving them.

References

1.^

‘National ID Briefer – Philippine Identification System’ <https://philsys.gov.ph/national-id-briefer/> accessed 18 March 2026; ‘PSA Appointment System | Book Your CRS Slot Now’ <https://crs-appointment.psahelpline.ph/> accessed 18 March 2026.

2.^

Act No. 3753 An Act To Establish A Civil Register 1930.

3.^

ibid

4.^

‘Presidential Decree No. 651, s. 1975 | GOVPH’ (Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines, 31 January 1975) <https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1975/01/31/presidential-decree-no-651-s-1975/> accessed 18 March 2026; Act No. 3753 An Act To Establish A Civil Register.

6.^

‘PSA Certificate of Live Birth’ (PSAHelpline.ph) <https://psahelpline.ph/blogs/a-guide-to-understanding-birth-registrations-and-birth-certificates> accessed 18 March 2026.

7.^

ibid

8.^

‘Requirements and Procedure for the Late Registration of Birth’ (Respicio & Co.) <https://www.lawyer-philippines.com/articles/requirements-and-procedure-for-the-late-registration-of-birth> accessed 18 March 2026.

9.^

ibid

10.^

‘National ID Briefer – Philippine Identification System’ (n 1).

11.^

‘Advisory | Philippine Statistics Authority’ <https://psa.gov.ph/content/advisory> accessed 18 March 2026.

12.^

‘Republic Act No. 11055’ <https://lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2018/ra_11055_2018.html> accessed 16 March 2026.

13.^

ibid

14.^

Citizenship (Article IV, Philippine Constitution): Full Text’ (Philippine e-Legal Forum) <https://pnl-law.com/blog/1987-constitution-article-iv-citizenship/> accessed 28 March 2026.

15.^

ibid

16.^

Act No. 3753 An Act To Establish A Civil Register.

17.^

ibid

18.^

Top-Notch ID Document Processing Worldwide: The Philippines’ (Regula) <https://regulaforensics.com/blog/philippine-national-id-verification/> accessed 30 March 2026.

19.^

ID Tech Editorial Team, ‘Philippines Rebrands National Digital ID System, Expands Services to Boost Adoption’ (ID Tech, 18 February 2025) <https://idtechwire.com/philippines-rebrands-national-digital-id-system-expands-services-to-boost-adoption/> accessed 29 March 2026.

20.^

‘National ID Briefer – Philippine Identification System’ <https://philsys.gov.ph/national-id-briefer/> accessed 29 March 2026.

21.^

‘Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) – Philippine Identification System’ <https://philsys.gov.ph/faq-frequently-asked-questions/> accessed 29 March 2026; ‘National ID Briefer – Philippine Identification System’ (n 20).

22.^

‘National ID Briefer – Philippine Identification System’ (n 20).

23.^

ibid

24.^

Christine O Avendaño Leonen Julius N, ‘National ID Not Mandatory, but Nonholders Face Woes – PSA Exec’ (INQUIRER.net, 8 August 2018) <https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1018984/news-national-id-philippine-identification-system-act-philsys-lisa-grace-bersales-philippine-statistics-authority-psa> accessed 29 March 2026.

25.^

ibid

26.^

‘Leading the Way: Tonik Becomes First Digital Bank to Implement PhilSys ID API Verification’ <https://tonikbank.com/news/leading-way-tonik-becomes-first-digital-bank-implement-philsys-id-verification> accessed 30 March 2026.

27.^

‘Republic Act No. 11055’ (n 12).

28.^

‘Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) – Philippine Identification System’ (n 21).

29.^

‘Top-Notch ID Document Processing Worldwide: The Philippines’ (n 18).

30.^

‘How the Philippines Tapped on Open-Source to Implement Digital Identity and Improve Services’ <https://govinsider.asia/intl-en/article/how-the-philippines-tapped-on-open-source-to-implement-digital-identity-and-improve-services> accessed 30 March 2026.

31.^

‘Republic Act No. 11055’ (n 12).

32.^

‘A Civil Society Guide to the Philippine Identification System’ (Foundation for Media Alternatives 2019) <https://www.fma.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/PhilSys-revised.pdf>; ‘Revised IRR of REPUBLIC ACT NO. 11055’ <https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/thebookshelf/showdocs/2/97649> accessed 30 March 2026.

33.^

‘Executive Order No. 162 - Institutionalizing the Acceptance of the Philippine Identification System Number as Sufficient Proof of Identity and Age in All Government and Private Transactions’ <https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/thebookshelf/showdocs/5/94197> accessed 30 March 2026.

34.^

Republic Act No. 11055’ (n 12).

35.^

Revised IRR of REPUBLIC ACT NO. 11055’ (n 32).

36.^

‘Republic Act No. 11055’ (n 12); ‘Revised IRR of REPUBLIC ACT NO. 11055’ (n 32).

37.^

Harold Respicio, ‘Addressing Delays and Tracking Issues in the Delivery of the Philippine National ID’ (RESPICIO & CO., 13 December 2024) <https://www.respicio.ph/dear-attorney/addressing-delays-and-tracking-issues-in-the-delivery-of-the-philippine-national-id> accessed 30 March 2026; Harold Respicio, ‘How to Claim My Undelivered National I.D.’ (RESPICIO & CO., 7 October 2024) <https://www.respicio.ph/dear-attorney/how-to-claim-my-undelivered-national-id> accessed 30 March 2026.

38.^

‘Republic Act 10173 - Data Privacy Act of 2012’ (National Privacy Commission) <https://privacy.gov.ph/data-privacy-act/> accessed 30 March 2026.

39.^

‘Implementing Rules and Regulations of the Data Privacy Act of 2012 - National Privacy CommissionNational Privacy Commission’ <https://privacy.gov.ph/implementing-rules-regulations-data-privacy-act-2012/> accessed 30 March 2026.

40.^

‘National Privacy Commission Complaint Process Philippines’ (Respicio & Co.) <https://www.lawyer-philippines.com/articles/national-privacy-commission-complaint-process-philippines> accessed 30 March 2026; ‘Republic Act 10173 - Data Privacy Act of 2012’ (n 38).

41.^

‘Republic Act 10173 - Data Privacy Act of 2012’ (n 38).

42.^

ibid

43.^

ibid

44.^

ibid

45.^

‘Philippines Privacy Authority Orders Halt to World Biometrics Processing | Biometric Update’ <https://www.biometricupdate.com/202510/philippines-privacy-authority-orders-halt-to-world-biometrics-processing> accessed 30 March 2026.

46.^

ibid.

47.^

‘Republic Act 10173 - Data Privacy Act of 2012’ (n 38).

48.^

ibid

49.^

ibid

50.^

‘Data Breach Incidents in Philippines: Key Cases & Responses’ <https://inquiro.ph/data-breach-incidents-in-the-philippines/> accessed 30 March 2026; ‘The National ID Debate: Is the Philippines Ready?’ (Foundation for Media Alternatives) <https://www.apc.org/sites/default/files/Briefing-National-ID-3.pdf>.

51.^

‘The National ID Debate: Is the Philippines Ready?’ (n 50).

52.^

‘Privacy Commission Recommends Criminal Prosecution of Bautista over “Comeleak”’ (National Privacy Commission, 5 January 2017) <https://privacy.gov.ph/privacy-commission-finds-bautista-criminally-liable-for-comeleak-data-breach/> accessed 30 March 2026.

53.^

OHCHR, ‘UN Treaty Body Database’ <https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx?CountryID=20&Lang=EN> accessed 20 November 2025.

54.^

‘Advisory Committee’ (Global Alliance to End Statelessness) <https://statelessnessalliance.org/advisory-committee/> accessed 1 April 2026.

55.^

‘Philippines Launches Action Plan to End Statelessness’ <https://dfa.gov.ph/dfa-news/dfa-releasesupdate/15022-philippines-launches-action-plan-to-end-> accessed 1 April 2026.

56.^

‘Refugees and Stateless Persons Protection Unit :: Department of Justice - Republic of the Philippines :: Tel: (+632) 523 8482, (+632) 523 6826’ <https://www.doj.gov.ph/rsppu.html> accessed 1 April 2026.

57.^

OHCHR (n 53

58.^

OHCHR, ‘UN Treaty Body Database’ <https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx?CountryID=20&Lang=EN> accessed 20 November 2025.

59.^

‘General Comment No. 25 (2021) on Children’s Rights in Relation to the Digital Environment’ <https://www.unicef.org/bulgaria/en/media/10596/file>.

60.^

‘Asia-Pacific Nations Reaffirm Commitment to Legal Identity for All at Third Ministerial Conference on Civil Registration and Vital Statistics | Get Every One in the Picture’ <https://crvs.unescap.org/news/asia-pacific-nations-reaffirm-commitment-legal-identity-all-third-ministerial-conference-civil> accessed 7 November 2025.

61.^

UNESCAP, ‘Ministerial Declaration on a Decade of Action for Inclusive and Resilient Civil Registration and Vital Statistics in Asia and the Pacific’ (2025) ESCAP/MCCRVS/2-25/6/Add.1 <https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/d8files/event-documents/2500197E_ESCAP_MCCRVS_2025_6_Add1_Ministerial_Declaration.pdf?_gl=1*vdnplp*_ga*NTMxNDc5Mjc4LjE3NjIzMjk2NDg.*_ga_SB1ZX36Y86*czE3NjIzMjk2NDckbzEkZzEkdDE3NjIzMzA1MDgkajI3JGwwJGgw>.

62.^

ASEAN TELMIN, ‘Framework on Personal Data Protection’ (2016) <https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/2016-Frmwk-PDP.pdf>; ASEAN TELMIN, ‘Framework on Digital Data Governance’ (2018) <https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/2018-Framework-Digital-Data-Governance.pdf>.

63.^

Tony Lam, ‘An Overview of the Principles Established by the APEC Privacy Framework’ <https://www.pcpd.org.hk/english/news_events/speech/files/1tonylam1.pdf>.

64.^

APEC Privacy Framework (2015)’ (APEC) <https://www.apec.org/publications/2017/08/apec-privacy-framework-(2015)> accessed 6 February 2026.

65.^

‘Republic Act No. 11055’ (n 12).

66.^

Harold Respicio, ‘Legal Implications for Children Without Birth Certificates’ (RESPICIO & CO., 19 October 2025) <https://www.respicio.ph/commentaries/legal-implications-for-children-without-birth-certificates> accessed 31 March 2026; ‘Official Statement Regarding the Alleged “New DepEd Policy” That Will Not Allow Thousands of Students to Graduate without a PSA Birth Certificate’ (Department of Education, 4 April 2018) <https://www.deped.gov.ph/2018/04/04/83781/> accessed 31 March 2026.

67.^

Lanie Carillo, ‘3.7M Filipinos without Birth Certificate: A Call for Universal Birth Registration’ (World Vision Philippines, 5 February 2025) <https://www.worldvision.org.ph/3-7m-filipinos-without-birth-certificate-a-call-for-universal-birth-registration/> accessed 1 April 2026; ‘Hope for Sama-Bajaus with Birth Registration Woes | UNICEF Philippines’ <https://www.unicef.org/philippines/stories/hope-sama-bajaus-birth-registration-woes> accessed 1 April 2026.

68.^

‘Building Statelessness-Sensitive ID Systems’ (World Bank Group 2026).

69.^

‘Over 1,300 at Risk of Statelessness Receive Birth Certificates in Maguindanao and BaSulTa’ <https://www.unicef.org/philippines/press-releases/over-1300-risk-statelessness-receive-birth-certificates-maguindanao-and-basulta> accessed 1 April 2026; Mohadz Abdulkasan, ‘Empowerment and Protection: A Bajau Woman Weaves a Future for Her Family and Community’ (UNHCR Philippines) <https://www.unhcr.org/ph/news/stories/empowerment-and-protection-bajau-woman-weaves-future-her-family-and-community-0> accessed 1 April 2026.

70.^

‘Immigration Memorandum Circular No. SBM-2015-010’ (8 October 2015) <https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/thebookshelf/showdocs/5/92437> accessed 1 April 2026.

71.^

‘G.R. No. 221697 - Mary Grace Natividad S. Poe-Llamanzares, Petitioner vs. Commission on Elections and Estrella C. Elamparo, Respondents.[G.R. Nos. 221698-700]’ <https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/thebookshelf/showdocs/1/61848> accessed 1 April 2026.

72.^

‘SC Streamlines Naturalization Process for Refugees and Stateless Persons’ <https://www.ocamposuralvo.com/2022/03/31/sc-streamlines-naturalization-process-for-refugees-and-stateless-persons/> accessed 1 April 2026.

73.^

UN High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Unregistered Children and Their Families in Maguindanao Receive Their Birth Certificates’ (https://www.unhcr.org/ph/29113-unregistered-children-and-their-families-in-maguindanao-receive-their-birth-certificates.html, 28 March 2023) <https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2089945.html> accessed 1 April 2026.

See Statelessness Overview